2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Design A pilot study was conducted
to evaluate and compare the nutritional composition of traditional
Portuguese recipes representative of the three main regions of mainland
Portugal (North, Centre, and South), aiming to identify potential
regional differences in their nutritional profiles. Recipes from these
three major administrative regions defined by the National Institute of
Statistics [10] were included in the analysis. Regional delimitation
followed the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS II)
system, ensuring consistency in geographical classification and balanced
representation among the regions analysed. 2.2. Data Collection 2.2.1.
Recipe Source Selection The sample consisted of 60 traditional
Portuguese recipes, evenly distributed across the three regions (20
recipes per region). Within each region, the selection included six
first courses (two of which were soups), eight main courses (four
meat-based dishes and four fish-based dishes), and six desserts. Recipe
selection was based on two widely recognised reference sources, chosen
for their authenticity, historical relevance, and cultural significance
in Portuguese culinary literature: - Cozinha Tradicional Portuguesa by
Maria de Lourdes Modesto (1981) [4], widely regarded as the “Bible” of
Portuguese gastronomy. - Teleculinária magazine (2024) [11], first
published in 1976, which became a benchmark in Portuguese cuisine and is
currently available exclusively in digital format. Recipes were selected
according to the geographical origin indicated in the culinary
publications, as well as their cultural representativeness and
popularity within each region
Priority was given to preparations most strongly associated with local
gastronomic identity and still present in contemporary Portuguese
cuisine. Cultural representativeness was further validated using the
VisitPortugal portal (Turismo de Portugal, 2024) [12] and the Portugal
Gastronomias website [13], which identify emblematic gastronomic
specialties of each region. The combined use of these sources ensured
the cultural and regional adequacy of the sample, ensuring that the
selected recipes accurately reflected Portuguese gastronomic heritage.
Each recipe was subsequently coded using a numerical system
corresponding to region and dish category, allowing systematic
organisation and facilitating subsequent statistical analysis (Table 1).
Table 1. Identification of Portuguese culinary recipes used for
nutritional composition analysis in three regions of Portugal.
2.2.2. Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria Inclusion criteria comprised recipes
with a clearly defined regional origin (North, Centre, or South),
presence in at least one of the selected reference sources, and
preservation of original ingredients and traditional cooking methods
representative of local gastronomy. An additional inclusion criterion
was the availability of complete information on ingredients and
respective quantities, which was essential for nutritional analysis.
Recipes lacking precise regional identification, those that had
undergone substantial modern adaptations (e.g., substitution of
traditional ingredients with contemporary alternatives), or those with
insufficient quantitative data were excluded. 2.2.3. Nutritional
Composition Assessment For each recipe, nutritional composition per 100
g was determined for the following parameters: energy value (kcal),
protein (g), total carbohydrates (g), sugars (g), dietary fibre (g),
total fat (g), saturated fatty acids (g), and sodium (mg). These
variables allow the assessment of energy density and overall nutritional
quality and enable comparison with current European reference values
[14]. The number of recipes per region and per dish category was defined
to ensure balanced representation of traditional culinary practices
while maintaining feasibility within a pilot study framework. This
strategy prioritised cultural relevance and methodological transparency
over statistical power. 2.3. Data Organization Data collection began
with recipe selection, followed by ingredient quantification and
calculation of nutritional composition. As many recipes reported
household measures rather than standardised units, all ingredient
quantities were converted into grams using the reference manual Pesos e
Porções de Alimentos [15], ensuring consistency and accuracy.
Nutritional composition was determined using an online nutritional
analysis software, which primarily relies on the Portuguese Food
Composition Table [16]. When specific ingredients were not available in
this database, nutritional information was obtained from the FatSecret
platform (2024) [17], using values derived primarily from manufacturers’
nutrition labels and other publicly available food composition data. A
nutritional assessment sheet was created for each recipe from the three
regions. All nutritional data were subsequently organised into a table
using Microsoft Excel® format for further statistical analysis. 2.4.
Data Analysis A database was constructed to operationalise the variables
under study, including variable coding, description, scoring, and
statistical categorisation. Statistical analysis was performed using
SPSS® software, version 29.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Results were
expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Data normality was assessed
using the Shapiro–Wilk test, which indicated that several variables were
not normally distributed in at least one region. Therefore, data were
logarithmically transformed (log10) to approximate normality. After
transformation, the assumptions required for one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) were reassessed, including normality of distributions
and homogeneity of variances (Levene’s test), both of which were
confirmed. Comparisons between regions were performed using one-way
ANOVA, followed by Tukey’s post hoc test for multiple comparisons.
Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Additionally, six complete
menus were constructed (two per region), representing the combinations
with the lowest and highest energy values based on the analysed recipes.
These menus were evaluated and compared with reference values for energy
and nutrient intake. A daily energy intake of 2000 kcal was considered,
in accordance with Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011 [18], with lunch
defined as contributing 30% of total daily energy intake [19,20].
Reference macronutrient distribution was set at 15% protein, 55%
carbohydrates, and 30% lipids, based on World Health Organization
recommendations [21]. For dietary fibre, the EFSA reference value of 25
g/day was adopted [14]. The upper limit for free sugars was defined
according to World Health Organization guidelines [22], which recommend
that free sugars should not exceed 10% of total daily energy intake.
Saturated fatty acids (SFA) were assessed in accordance with EFSA
guidance [14], which recommends that their contribution should not
exceed 10% of total daily energy intake. Based on these criteria, the
following reference values were defined for lunch: 600 kcal energy, 22.5
g protein, 82.5 g carbohydrates, 20 g lipids, 60 g sugars, 7.5 g dietary
fibre, 6.7 g SFA, and 600 mg sodium. Results were expressed as
percentages of adequacy relative to these reference values, allowing
assessment of the degree of compliance of regional menus with current
nutritional recommendations. This approach enabled an integrated
evaluation of the nutritional quality of traditional Portuguese recipes,
both in absolute terms (nutritional composition per 100 g) and relative
terms (adequacy in relation to international guidelines). 3. Results and
Discussion The results revealed significant nutritional differences
among traditional Portuguese first courses from the North, Centre, and
South regions (Table 2), reflecting regional variability in ingredients
and cooking methods. Comparative analysis identified significant
variations in energy value, macronutrient distribution, dietary fibre,
sugars, and sodium content, highlighting distinct regional patterns.
Region - Recipe Code - Recipe Name
North First Course 1 Caldo-Verde North First Course 2 Folar Transmontano
North First Course 3 Bolinhos de bacalhau North First Course 4 Bola de
carne North First Course 5 Rancho North First Course 6 Sopa Seca à Moda
do Minho North Main Course 1 Rojões à moda do Minho North Main Course 2
Arroz de pato à moda de Braga North Main Course 3 Lombo de porco assado
North Main Couse 4 Papas de sarrabulho à moda de Sandim do Douro North
Main Course 5 Bacalhau à Gomes de Sá North Main Course 6 Bacalhau à Zé
do pipo North Main Course 7 Arroz de Lampreia North Main Course 8 Polvo
assado na brasa North Dessert 1 Sarrabulho doce North Dessert 2
Rosquilhas North Dessert 3 Pastéis de Santa Clara North Dessert 4 Pão de
ló North Dessert 5 Toucinho-do-céu North Dessert 6 Jesuítas
Center First Course 1 Sopa de entulho Center First Course 2 Salada de
feijão frade Center First Course 3 Peixinhos da horta Center First
Course 4 Pipis Center First Course 5 Sopa de Pedra Center First Course 6
Pataniscas de bacalhau Center Main Course 1 Feijoada à Portuguesa Center
Main Course 2 Cabrito assado Center Main Course 3 Bife à café Center
Main Course 4 Cozido à portuguesa Center Main Course 5 Bacalhau à Brás
Center Main Course 6 Bacalhau assado com broa Center Main Course 7
Lampreia Caseira Center Main Course 8 Caldeirada rica Center Dessert 1
Arroz doce saloio Center Dessert 2 Farófias Center Dessert 3 Areias
Center Dessert 4 Tigeladas Center Dessert 5 Ovos-moles de Aveiro Center
Dessert 6 Carólos South First Course 1 Gaspacho
South First Course 2 Sopa de cação South First Course 3 Sopa de
Lingueirão South First Course 4 Choquinhos fritos com tinta South First
Course 5 Conquilhas à Algarvia South First Course 6 Espargos bravos com
ovos South Main Course 1 Carne de porco com amêijoas South Main Course 2
Ovos escalfados com ervilhas South Main Course 3 Pezinhos de Porco de
Coentrada South Main Course 4 Entrecosto frito com migas à Alentejana
South Main Course 5 Bifes de atum em cebolada South Main Course 6
Carapaus Alimados South Main Course 7 Lulas cheias South Main Course 8
Arroz de berbigão South Dessert 1 Pudim de água South Dessert 2 Morgado
de figo South Dessert 3 Tarte de claras ou colchão de noiva South
Dessert 4 Bolo mimoso South Dessert 5 Bolos de D. Rodrigo South Dessert
6 Queijinhos de amêndo.
Regarding energy value per 100 g, first courses from the Northern region
presented the highest mean values (≈202 ± 21 kcal), followed by those
from the Southern (≈133 ± 18 kcal) and Central regions (≈126 ± 26 kcal).
This difference is primarily attributable to the higher energy density
of Northern preparations, which tend to have lower water content and
higher proportions of starchy foods, protein, and fat. Representative
examples include Caldo Verde (potato and chorizo soup), Bolinhos de
Bacalhau (codfish cakesthat absorb oil during frying), Bola de Carne (a
bread-based preparation with cured meats), and Rancho (a dish combining
pasta, veal, and cured pork products). In the Centre, lower energy
density is associated with the predominance of soups and vegetable-based
dishes, such as Sopa de Pedra and Sopa de Entulho, despite the inclusion
of some fried items, including Peixinhos da Horta. In the South,
intermediate energy values reflect the frequent consumption of fish- and
shellfish-based soups, such as Sopa de Cação and Sopa de Lingueirão, as
well as first courses prepared with moderate amounts of olive oil, such
as Conquilhas à Algarvia. With respect to protein content, the highest
mean values were observed in the Southern region (≈12 ± 1.9 g), followed
by the North (≈11 ± 1.6 g) and the Centre (≈6 ± 1.4 g). The predominance
of fish, shellfish, and eggs (foods of high biological value) in
Southern first courses explains these findings, as illustrated by
preparations such as Espargos Bravos com Ovos. In the North, protein
intake is mainly derived from meats and cured products, such as Folar
Transmontano and Bola de Carne, as well as from fish-based preparations
like Bolinhos de Bacalhau. In the Centre, lower protein density is
associated with a higher proportion of broths, vegetables, and legumes,
which dilute protein content per 100 g, although some dishes still
include meat, fish, or cured meats. Carbohydrate content was highest in
the North, followed by the Centre and the South, reflecting the frequent
use of potatoes, bread, and flour in Northern recipes. In the Centre,
intermediate values are associated with the inclusion of legumes and
cereals in soups and salads, whereas in the South, lower carbohydrate
content reflects a greater emphasis on fish and vegetables and a reduced
contribution from starchy ingredients. Sugar content was low and similar
across regions (≈1–2 g), corresponding mainly to naturally occurring
sugars in vegetables, such as onions. Differences in dietary fibre
content were modest, although the Centre showed slightly higher values,
associated with the frequent use of legumes and vegetables in dishes
such as Sopa de Pedra, Sopa de Entulho, and Salada de Feijão-Frade.
Regarding total fat, the highest mean values were observed in the Centre
(≈14 ± 1.5 g), largely attributable to the predominance of fried
preparations such as Peixinhos da Horta and Pataniscas de Bacalhau,
followed by the North (≈11 ± 1.4 g) and the South (≈6 ± 2.6 g). In the
North, fat content is mainly derived from meats and cured products
(e.g., chorizo, prosciutto, ham and other cured meats), whereas in the
South, olive oil constitutes the primary lipid source and is generally
used in moderate amounts, often combined with lean fish and shellfish.
The profile of SFA followed a similar trend, with higher values in the
North and Centre due to the greater use of animal-based ingredients rich
in saturated fat. Sodium content was markedly higher in the North (≈482
± 91.8 mg), reflecting the frequent use of salted and cured meats in
first-course preparations, such as Caldo Verde, Folar Transmontano, Bola
de Carne, Rancho, and Sopa Seca à Moda do Minho. In contrast, sodium
levels in the Centre (≈ 37 ± 57 mg) and the South (≈136 ± 37 mg) were
substantially lower, consistent with the reduced use of processed meats
and the predominance of vegetable and fish-based preparations. In
summary, the Northern region was characterised by higher energy density,
higher carbohydrate content, and elevated sodium levels, reflecting the
frequent use of starchy ingredients, meats, and cured products in less
diluted preparations. The Central region exhibited higher total fat
values, largely resulting from the prevalence of fried dishes, whereas
the Southern region showed a more balanced nutritional profile, with
higher protein content and a predominance of unsaturated fats derived
from olive oil and fish. Mean SFA content was higher in the North region
compared to the Centre and South regions. Sugar content remained low and
homogeneous across regions, while dietary fibre showed only minor
variation, with a slight advantage observed in the Centre. The analysis
of the average nutritional composition of main courses from the North,
Centre, and South regions (Table 3) revealed regional differences
associated with ingredient selection, relative proportions of meat,
fish, and vegetables, and the cooking techniques characteristic of each
area of the country.
Main courses from the Northern region presented the highest mean energy
value (≈207 ± 22.8 kcal), followed by those from the Southern (≈179 ±
63.9 kcal) and Central regions (≈173 ± 22.3 kcal). This pattern reflects
the predominant types of preparations characteristic of each region. In
the North, dishes such as Rojões à Moda do Minho, Arroz de Pato à Moda
de Braga, and Papas de Sarrabulho à Moda de Sandim do Douro stand out
due to the use of fatty meats and high proportions of starchy
ingredients. Variations of Bacalhau à Gomes de Sá and Bacalhau à Zé do
Pipo also exhibit high energy density because of the use of olive oil,
mayonnaise, and potatoes. In the Centre, lower energy values are
associated with more balanced and diversified dishes that combine
nutrient-dense ingredients with components rich in water and vegetables,
thereby reducing energy content per 100 g. Preparations such as Cozido à
Portuguesa and Feijoada à Portuguesa include meats, cured products, and
legumes, but also large amounts of vegetables, potatoes, and broth.
Similarly, Caldeirada Rica and Lampreia Caseira incorporate lean fish,
tomato, and onion, resulting in more voluminous dishes with lower fat
concentration. In the South, intermediate energy values reflect a
balance between richer meat-based dishes, such as Entrecosto Frito com
Migas and Pezinhos de Porco de Coentrada, and lighter fishand
seafood-based recipes, including Arroz de Berbigão and Carapaus
Alimados. Protein content was highest in the Southern region (≈13 ± 7.0
g), followed by the North (≈12 ± 2.0 g)
and the Centre (≈11 ± 1.0 g). In the South, fish- and seafood-based
dishes predominate, such as Bifes de Atum em Cebolada, Arroz de
Berbigão, and Lulas Cheias, providing high biological value protein with
relatively low saturated fat content. In the North, protein levels are
also elevated due to the frequent use of meat and codfish in dishes such
as Arroz de Pato à Moda de Braga, Bacalhau à Gomes de Sá, and Bacalhau à
Zé do Pipo. In the Centre, lower protein density per 100 g results from
the combination of meat or fish with larger quantities of vegetables,
rice, or potatoes. Carbohydrate content was broadly similar across
regions, with a slight upward trend in the North and Centre. In the
Centre, dishes such as Bacalhau à Brás, Bacalhau com Broa, and Arroz de
Lampreia contribute substantial amounts of starchy foods. In the North,
carbohydrate levels are explained by the frequent use of rice, potatoes,
and pasta, whereas in the South, slightly lower values were observed,
although dishes such as Arroz de Berbigão, Migas à Alentejana, and
Carapaus Alimados also contribute to total carbohydrate intake. Sugar
content was low and similar across regions, as expected for savoury main
courses. Values for dietary fibre were very similar among regions (≈1
g), with no relevant differences. This uniformity reflects the
widespread inclusion of fibre-rich plant-based foods, such as legumes,
vegetables, and cereals, across all regions. Regarding total fat, the
highest mean values were observed in the North (≈14 ± 2.2 g), followed
by the South (≈11 ± 3.9 g) and the Centre (≈10 ± 2.1 g). In the North,
higher fat content results from the use of pork, cured meats, sausages,
and lard, as well as the frequent addition of olive oil, as seen in
Papas de Sarrabulho, Rojões à Moda do Minho, and Arroz de Pato à Moda de
Braga. In the South, fats are predominantly of plant origin, mainly
olive oil, which is widely used in regional cuisine. In the Centre,
although fat is added, the predominance of broth-based dishes
contributes to a lower average lipid density. The SFA profile was
similar across regions, reflecting the combined use of olive oil and
fish as major fat sources. Sodium content was relatively homogeneous,
ranging from approximately 240 to 270 mg, with slightly higher mean
values observed in the Centre (≈272 ± 145 mg), followed by the South
(≈269 ± 116 mg) and the North (≈243 ± 126 mg). In the Centre, higher
sodium values are associated with the use of sausages, salted meats, and
codfish. In the North, although salted ingredients are common, sodium
concentration may be partially diluted in preparations with higher oil
or milk content. In the South, intermediate sodium values are related to
the use of molluscs and shellfish naturally rich in sodium, such as in
Arroz de Berbigão and Carne de Porco com Amêijoas, as well as moderate
use of condiments. Overall, the Northern region stood out for higher
energy density and lipid content, reflecting the frequent use of fatty
meats, cured products, and culinary fats. The Southern region presented
a more favourable lipid profile due to the predominance of unsaturated
fats from olive oil and fish. The Central region showed lower energy and
lipid density but slightly higher sodium levels, resulting from the
combined use of salted meats, sausages, and codfish. Differences in SFA,
protein, carbohydrates, and dietary fibre were minimal, suggesting that,
regardless of region, traditional Portuguese main courses maintain a
relatively balanced nutritional profile for these parameters. The
analysis of the average nutritional composition of traditional
Portuguese desserts from the North, Centre, and South regions (Table 4)
revealed relatively small differences in energy density and
macronutrient distribution, largely associated with the choice and
proportion of key ingredients, namely sugar, eggs, flour, nuts, and
fats. Desserts from the Northern region showed the highest mean energy
value (≈385 ± 28.1 kcal), followed by those from the South (≈375 ± 30.4
kcal) and the Centre (≈374 ± 80.7 kcal). This pattern reflects the
predominant use of sugar, almonds, egg yolks, and added fats in dense
preparations with low water content. In the North, desserts such as
Toucinho-do-Céu
(500 g sugar, 250 g almonds, and 50 g butter) and Jesuítas (puff pastry
with butter and an egg white–sugar filling) contribute substantially to
energy density. Other examples, including Pão de Ló and Pastéis de Santa
Clara, which are rich in sugar and egg yolks, further reinforce this trend.
In the Central region, although desserts such as Tigeladas and Ovos
Moles de Aveiro are also energy-dense, the inclusion of lighter
preparations, such as Carólos, contributes to a lower regional average.
In the Southern region, intermediate energy values result from a balance
between highly energetic desserts, such as Morgado de Figo (500 g figs,
500 g sugar, and 500 g almonds), and lighter options, such as Pudim de
Água, in which the addition of water slightly reduces overall energy
density. Protein content was highest in the South, followed by the North
and the Centre, reflecting differences in the number of eggs used in
regional dessert recipes. Carbohydrates were the predominant
macronutrient in desserts from all regions, although with marked
regional variation. The highest carbohydrate content was observed in the
South, followed by the North, and the lowest in the Centre. In the
South, this pattern is attributable to the extensive use of refined
sugar and naturally sweet ingredients, as seen in Morgado de Figo,
Bolinhos de D. Rodrigo (1 kg sugar), and Tarte de Claras. In the North,
carbohydrate levels are similarly high due to desserts such as
Toucinho-do-Céu, Pastéis de Santa Clara, and Pão de Ló, which
incorporate large amounts of sucrose and flour. In contrast, the lower
carbohydrate content observed in the Centre reflects a more diversified
ingredient composition, where sugar— although abundant in desserts such
as Arroz Doce Saloio and Ovos Moles de Aveiro—is combined with larger
proportions of milk, flour, and eggs, resulting in lower carbohydrate
concentration per 100 g.
Values for dietary fibre were low across all regions, ranging from 0 to
2 g. The North and South presented values closer to 2 g, mainly due to
the inclusion of flour, figs, and nuts. In the Centre, fibre content was
nearly negligible, reflecting the predominance of sugar, milk, and eggs
in desserts such as Farófias, Ovos Moles de Aveiro, and Arroz Doce
Saloio. Regarding total fat, the highest mean values were observed in
the Centre (≈23 ± 10.0 g), followed by the North (≈18 ± 3.0 g) and the
South (≈13 ± 2.9 g). In the Centre, this pattern is largely driven by
desserts rich in added fats, such as Areias, which contain lard; the low
water content and high sugar concentration of these preparations limit
fat dilution in the final product. In the North, intermediate fat values
result from the use of butter and lard in puff pastry and traditional
cakes, such as Jesuítas and Rosquilhas. In the South, lower total fat
content reflects the use of smaller amounts of added fats, with a
greater contribution from natural lipid sources, such as olive oil and
almonds. Although these ingredients contribute to overall energy value,
they provide a more favourable lipid profile. The SFA content followed
the sequence North (≈6 g) > Centre (≈4 g) > South (≈2 g), reflecting the
greater use of animal fats in Northern and Central desserts and the
predominance of unsaturated fats from olive oil and almonds in Southern
preparations. Sodium content was very low across all regions, with
slightly lower values observed in the South (≈37 mg), followed by the
Centre (≈41 mg) and the North (≈73 mg). As expected, salt is not a
relevant ingredient in desserts, and the minor variations observed are
attributable to raw materials such as eggs and butter or to differences
in preparation processes. Overall, the Northern region stood out for
higher energy density and saturated fat content, with intermediate total
lipid values. The Central region exhibited the highest total fat
content, intermediate SFA levels, and the lowest dietary fibre content.
The Southern region showed higher protein, carbohydrate, and sugar
contents but lower total fat and SFA levels, while maintaining residual
sodium values. These results reflect regional pastry traditions and
ingredient matrices, particularly the relative proportions of eggs,
sugar, added fats, flour, and nuts that characterise traditional
Portuguese desserts. To determine whether the descriptive differences
observed between regions were statistically significant, an inferential
comparison of the mean nutritional values of the three regions was
performed (Table 5). This analysis aimed to identify which nutritional
parameters of traditional Portuguese recipes differed significantly
between the North, Centre, and South regions. Statistically significant
regional differences were observed only for first-course dishes. For
energy value, a significant difference was identified between the North
(202 ± 21 kcal) and the Centre (126 ± 26 kcal) (p < 0.05), whereas
values for the South (133 ± 18 kcal) did not differ significantly from
either region. Regarding dietary fibre, a significant difference was
observed between the Centre (2.0 ± 0.5 g) and the South (1.0 ± 0.3 g),
with the Centre showing the highest mean value. With respect to sodium,
the North (482 ± 91.8 mg) differed significantly from both the Centre
(137 ± 57.2 mg) and the South (136 ± 37.3 mg), presenting markedly
higher sodium content. No statistically significant regional differences
were observed for protein, carbohydrates, sugars, total fat, or SFA in
first-course dishes (p > 0.05). Furthermore, for main courses and
desserts, no statistically significant differences were identified for
any of the evaluated nutritional parameters (p > 0.05). Although
descriptive variability was observed between regions, these differences
were insufficient to reach statistical significance, suggesting a
broadly similar nutritional composition of main courses and desserts
across the three regions. A comparison was also conducted between the
nutritional values of the most and least energy-dense complete menus
from the North, Centre, and South regions, with the aim of assessing
their adequacy relative to established nutritional recommendations for a
complete meal. This analysis, summarised in Table 6, complements the
previous inferential evaluation by providing an applied perspective on
the nutritional impact of traditional dishes when combined into
representative regional menus.
The menus were constructed based on the recipes previously analysed,
integrating a first course, a main course, and a dessert from each
region to reflect the typical structure of a complete meal. This
approach allowed assessment of the extent to which combinations of
traditional dishes align with, or deviate from, reference values for a
balanced meal, thereby identifying potential nutritional excesses or
deficits and highlighting regional differences in Portuguese dietary
patterns. The complete menus analysed in this study represent
theoretical combinations based on standardised nutritional values per
100 g of each recipe. These combinations were not intended to replicate
actual portion sizes or real consumption patterns, but rather to provide
a comparative framework for evaluating the nutritional balance of
traditional dishes when combined into a complete meal. Nutritional
adequacy of the complete menus was assessed using the Comparison with
Reference Value (CRV), which expresses each nutritional parameter as a
percentage of the reference value established for a complete meal.
Values between 90–110% were considered adequate for energy and
macronutrients. For sugars, SFA, and sodium, values exceeding
the reference were classified as excessive, whereas for dietary fibre,
values below 90% of the reference were considered insufficient....
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